Summary results
In total 32,213 motorcycles were observed across all the trial sites. Each of these 32,213 motorcycles were manually counted and coded in relation to whether they were a lead or following motorcycle (i.e. ‘lead’), solo rider or carrying a pillion (i.e. ‘pillion’), and individual motorcycle or riding as part of a group (i.e. ‘group’). From these 9,919 lead motorcycles were analysed in more detail (Table three).
Table three
| Site | Lead (N) | Pillion (N) | Group (N) | Total (N) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Appin House - north | 188 | 44 | 223 | 395 |
| Appin House - south | 205 | 55 | 247 | 412 |
| Kingshouse - north | 315 | 170 | 1,041 | 1,225 |
| Kingshouse - south | 382 | 128 | 772 | 1,601 |
| Loch Lubhair - east | 390 | 161 | 841 | 1,355 |
| Loch Lubhair - west | 555 | 182 | 1,135 | 1,749 |
| Rob Roy's Dip - east 1 | 452 | 163 | 827 | 1,354 |
| Rob Roy's Dip - east 2 | 562 | 162 | 826 | 1,753 |
| Rob Roy's Dip - west 1 | 430 | 188 | 1,129 | 1,352 |
| Rob Roy's Dip - west 2 | 568 | 188 | 1,128 | 1,753 |
| Total | 4,047 | 1,441 | 8,169 | 12,949 |
| Site | Lead (N) | Pillion (N) | Group (N) | Total (N) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Taynuilt - west | 275 | 93 | 638 | 959 |
| Inveruglas - south | 207 | 113 | 665 | 1,171 |
| Runacraig - north | 311 | 154 | 959 | 1,566 |
| Runacraig - south | 330 | 135 | 725 | 1,305 |
| Dunira - west | 624 | 133 | 881 | 1,574 |
| Bonawe - east | 437 | 105 | 626 | 1,191 |
| Landrick Bends - comparison | 364 | 203 | 968 | 1,828 |
| Total | 2,548 | 936 | 5,462 | 9,594 |
| Site | Lead (N) | Pillion (N) | Group (N) | Total (N) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dailnamac - east | 290 | 87 | 532 | 879 |
| Pulpit Rock - north | 254 | 152 | 1,029 | 1,615 |
| Butterbridge - north | 513 | 127 | 868 | 1,362 |
| Middle Kames - south | 249 | 62 | 368 | 582 |
| Salmon Draft - north | 620 | 146 | 1,060 | 1,667 |
| Salmon Draft - south | 571 | 173 | 1,050 | 1,747 |
| Carrick - comparison | 401 | 58 | 526 | 878 |
| Dunira - revisited from 2021 | 207 | 42 | 217 | 445 |
| Rob Roy's Dip - revisited from 2020 | 219 | 57 | 287 | 495 |
| Total | 3,324 | 904 | 5,937 | 9,670 |
| Site | Lead (N) | Pillion (N) | Group (N) | Total (N) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total | 9,919 | 3,281 | 19,568 | 32,213 |
Motorcycles carrying a passenger/pillion (N=3,281) represented 10.19% of the total sample of motorcycles. The largest proportion of motorcycles were classified as being part of a group (N=19,568), accounting for 60.75% of the total sample of motorcycles. This would indicate that while motorcyclists did not generally carry a passenger/pillion they were likely to be riding with other motorcyclists, reinforcing the social aspect of motorcycling.
Lead motorcycles (N=9,919) accounted for 30.79% of the total sample of motorcycles and were analysed in more detail. Results from the 22 trial sites are summarised below (Table four).
Table four
| Site | Speed | Position at PRIME | Position at Apex | Braking | Use of Gateway |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Appin House - north | No effect | Sig | No effect | No effect | Trend |
| Appin House - south | Sig | Sig | Sig | Trend | Sig |
| Kingshouse - north | Trend | Sig | No effect | No effect | Sig |
| Kingshouse - south | No effect | Sig | Sig | Trend | |
| Loch Lubhair - east | No effect | Sig | Sig | Sig/Trend | Sig |
| Loch Lubhair - west | Sig | Sig | Sig | Sig | Sig |
| Rob Roy's Dip - east 1 | No effect | Sig | No effect | Trend | Sig |
| Rob Roy's Dip - east 2 | No effect | Sig | Sig | Trend | Sig |
| Rob Roy's Dip - west 1 | Sig | Sig | Sig | Trend | Sig |
| Rob Roy's Dip - west 2 | Sig | Sig | Sig | Trend | Sig |
| Site | Speed | Position at PRIME | Position at Apex | Braking | Use of Gateway |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Taynuilt - west | Sig | No effect | Sig | Trend | Sig |
| Inveruglas - south | Trend | Trend | Sig | Sig | Trend |
| Runacraig - north | Sig | Trend | No effect | No effect | Sig |
| Runacraig - south | Sig | Trend | No effect | Sig | Sig |
| Dunira - west | Sig | Sig | Sig | Sig/Trend | Sig |
| Bonawe - east | Sig | No effect | Trend | Trend | Trend |
| Landrick Bends* | No effect | No effect | No effect | Trend | No effect |
| Site | Speed | Position at PRIME | Position at Apex | Braking | Use of Gateway |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dailnamac - east | No effect | Sig | Sig | Sig/Trend | Sig |
| Pulpit Rock - north | No effect | No effect | Sig | Sig/Trend | Sig |
| Butterbridge - north | No effect | Sig | No effect | Trend | Sig |
| Middle Kames - south | Trend | Sig | No effect | Sig | Sig |
| Salmon Draft - north | Sig | No effect | No effect | Sig/Trend | Sig |
| Salmon Draft - south | Trend | Sig | Sig | No effect | Sig |
| Carrick* | No effect | No effect | No effect | No effect | No effect |
*comparison sites no effects for rider behaviour were expected
Key findings of the 2020 PRIMEs trials
During the 2020 motorcycle season PRIME road trials were conducted at 10 trial sites in the West Highlands on the A828, A82 and A85 (i.e. Appin House, Kingshouse, Loch Lubhair and Rob Roy’s Dip). These trial sites included a range of left-hand and right-hand bends.
In total 12,949 motorcycles were manually counted and coded across all the trial sites and from these 4,047 lead motorcycles were analysed in more detail.
Speed was significantly reduced at four trial sites across left-hand and right-hand bends. A trend for reduced speed was observed at another site. Statistically significant effects were observed across all the trial sites for positive changes in road position at the point of the final PRIME road marking. Similarly, for motorcycle position at the apex of the bend, statistically significant effects were observed across seven of the 10 trial sites. This indicated positive changes in road position with motorcyclists taking a wider path around both left-hand and right-hand bends.
While braking was one of the key variables measured in the pilot trials, this did not appear to be a high incidence activity. A significant reduction in braking was observed for both left-hand and right-hand bends at the Loch Lubhair trial site. A number of trends for reduced braking were observed at other sites.
Across eight of the 10 trial sites, significant results were observed for increased use of the PRIMEs. This provided strong evidence that motorcyclists were going ‘through the gap’ at the final gateway marking and therefore in the desired position prior to the bend.
For detailed statistical analyses, please refer to Stedmon, McKenzie, Langham, McKechnie, Perry and Wilson (2021).
A selection of bends illustrate the changes in road position due to PRIMEs (Figure 7).
(left-hand images = without PRIMEs installed, right-hand images = with PRIMEs installed)
Key findings of the 2021 PRIMEs trials
During the 2021 motorcycle season PRIME road trials were conducted at six trial sites and one comparison site on the A85, A82, and A84 (i.e. Taynuilt, Inveruglas, Runacraig, Dunira, Bonawe and Landrick Bends).
In total 9,594 motorcycles were manually counted and coded across all the trial sites and from these 2,548 lead motorcycles were analysed in more detail.
Speed was significantly reduced at five trial sites. A trend for reduced speed was observed at another site. A statistically significant effect was observed at one trial site for a positive change in road position at the point of the final PRIME road marking with similar trends at three other sites. For motorcycle position at the apex of the bend, a statistically significant effect was observed at three trial sites along with a trend at another site. This indicated positive changes in road position with motorcyclists taking a wider path around left-hand bends.
As in 2020, braking was not a high incidence activity. A significant reduction in braking was, however, observed at three sites and trends for reduced braking at three sites.
Across four of the six trial sites, significant results were observed for increased use of the PRIMEs. Trends for increased use of PRIMEs were observed at the other two sites. This provided strong evidence that motorcyclists were going ‘through the gap’ at the final gateway marking and therefore in the desired position prior to the bend.
At the comparison site no effects were observed, as expected. However, a trend for reduced braking was observed but this was due to a temporary situation affecting traffic flow on specific data collections periods.
For detailed statistical analyses please refer to Stedmon, McKenzie, Langham, McKechnie, Perry and Wilson (2022).
A selection of bends illustrate the changes in road position due to PRIMEs (Figure 8).
(left-hand images = without PRIMEs installed, right-hand images = with PRIMEs installed)
Key findings of the 2022 PRIMEs trials
During the 2022 motorcycle season PRIME road trials were conducted at six trial sites and one comparison site on the A83, A82, and A85 (i.e. Dailnamac, Pulpit Rock, Butterbridge, Middle Kames, Salmon Draft and Carrick).
In total 9,670 motorcycles were manually counted and coded across all the trial sites and from these 3,324 lead motorcycles were analysed in more detail.
Speed was significantly reduced at one trial site and trends for reduced speed were observed at two other sites. Statistically significant effects were observed for changes in road position at the final PRIME road marking at four sites. Motorcyclists were riding ‘through the gap’ and maintaining positions closer to the centre of the road. At the apex of the bend, statistically significant effects were observed at three of the six trial sites with motorcyclists taking a wider line around the bend.
Statistically significant reductions were observed for late braking, braking on the bend and total braking across four of the six trial sites. Similar trends for reduced braking were observed at these sites and one other trial site.
Across all six trial sites there was a significant increase in the use of the final PRIME gateway marking.
At the comparison site no effects were observed, as expected, as no PRIMEs were installed and no other effects on rider behaviour were evident.
For detailed statistical analyses, please refer to Stedmon, McKenzie, Langham, McKechnie, Perry and Wilson (submitted).
A selection of bends illustrate the changes in road position due to PRIMEs (Figure 9).
(left-hand images = without PRIMEs installed, right-hand images = with PRIMEs installed)
Long-term effects of PRIMEs
Transport Scotland supported further research in 2022 by revisiting a site from 2020 and 2021 to investigate the nature of long-term effects over one-year and two-year periods (Table five).
Table five
| Site | Speed | Position at PRIME | Position at Apex | Braking | Use of Gateway |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dunira 2021 | Sig | Sig | Sig | Sig/Trend | Sig |
| Dunira 2022 | Sig | Sig | Sig | Sig/Trend | Sig |
| Site | Speed | Position at PRIME | Position at Apex | Braking | Use of Gateway |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rob Roy's Dip 2020 | Sig | Sig | Sig | Trend | Sig |
| Rob Roy's Dip 2022 | Sig | Sig | Sig | No effect | Sig |
At Dunira, when the results from 2022 were compared back to the results for 2021, the same effects were apparent one-year later, indicating long-term behaviour change effects from installing PRIMEs at this trial site.
At Rob Roy’s Dip, when the results from 2022 were compared back to the results for 2020, the same statistically significant effects were apparent two-years later, indicating long-term behaviour change effects from installing PRIMEs at this trial site. However, the trends in reduced braking that were present in 2020 were not apparent in 2022.
The results from this additional work indicated that PRIMEs had a long-lasting effect on behaviour across all three of the key criteria PRIMEs are designed for (i.e. speed, position and braking).
Rider interviews
In total, 100 rider interviews were conducted during 2021 and 2022 at the Green Welly Stop in Tyndrum and Inveraray waterfront. In all cases, prior verbal consent was obtained and field notes were recorded afterwards.
The aim of the interviews was to provide insights into how motorcyclists who had experienced the PRIMEs had perceived them (i.e. did they remember passing them/paying attention to them?). In addition, it was important to capture how motorcyclists felt the PRIMEs might have influenced their behaviour (i.e. in relation to speed, position and braking).
This provided three main ways to look at the results and consider how they related to the video data captured at the trial sites:
- if motorcyclists did not remember the PRIME road sign/markings but behaviour changes were apparent from the video data, then this could indicate a more unconscious processing of the PRIMEs and intuitive behavioural influences
- if motorcyclists remembered the PRIMEs but did not feel they influenced their behaviour, this again could indicate a more implicit processing of the PRIMEs
- if motorcyclists remembered the PRIMEs and felt they influenced their behaviour, this could indicate a more explicit processing of the PRIMEs
Had motorcyclists been aware of the PRIMEs on their journey that day, and if so, whereabouts?
From the interviews 32 motorcyclists remembered observing the PRIME road sign or road markings; 59 motorcyclists did not remember them and 9 were not sure if they had seen them. Of the 32 who remembered seeing them, 18 stated they remembered the road sign in particular. This could mean that they were not as aware of the road markings and any behavioural effects apparent from the road markings could have been more aligned with the 59 that did not remember them
Did they feel the PRIMEs had influenced their riding?
The responses to this question were separated out for the 32 motorcyclists who remembered observing the PRIMEs, 59 motorcyclists who did not remember them, and the 9 who were not sure if they had seen them.
For the 32 motorcyclists who remembered the PRIMEs, in most cases (N=22) they did not feel the PRIMEs affected their riding. The responses were stated in terms of “that’s how I would be riding anyway” or “I don’t think I changed my behaviour because of them”.
Of this group only a few motorcyclists either felt the PRIMEs had influenced their behaviour (N=6) or were not sure if the PRIMEs had influenced their behaviour (N=4). These motorcyclists (N=10) were asked how, or how might, PRIMEs have affected their behaviour. Responses focused on speed (N=8), position (N=9) and braking (N=6).
For the 59 motorcyclists who did not remember observing the PRIMEs four participants were identified as not travelling through PRIMEs trials sites. Of the 55 who had passed through any of the PRIME trial sites on their way to Tyndrum or Inveraray, in most cases (N=47) they did not feel the PRIMEs affected their riding. The responses were stated in similar terms to the motorcyclists who had remembered them.
Of this group only a few motorcyclists either felt the PRIMEs had influenced their behaviour (N=6) or were not sure if the PRIMEs had influenced their behaviour (N=2). These motorcyclists (N=8) were asked how, or how might, PRIMEs have affected their behaviour. Responses focused on speed (N=6), position (N=8) and braking (N=6).
For the 9 motorcyclists who were not sure if they had observed the PRIMEs, 6 felt that their behaviour would not be influenced by them and 3 felt their behaviour would. Overall, they felt that PRIMEs could influence speed (N=6), position (N=7) and braking (N=5).
Where motorcyclists did not state a specific influence, most were unsure of the exact influence PRIMEs might have on rider behaviour.
Do you think PRIMEs are a good or bad idea?
This question was asked of all participants and overall, most responses were positive (N=89) and with fewer negative responses (N=11). In general, those who felt they were a good idea expressed it in terms of “anything that makes the roads safer is a good thing”, “for less experienced riders it’s a good idea”, and “for those who do not know the roads it is a good idea”. Of those who felt they were a bad idea the general comments were “we don’t need more white pain on the road” or “I don’t want to be told how I should be riding”.
An interesting observation was that many participants responded by saying “it wouldn’t affect my riding but I can imagine for less experienced riders, tourists or overseas riders it would be helpful”. This was not a specific question in the interview (i.e. how beneficial the PRIMEs might be for other riders) as we were interested in the personal experience and viewpoint of riders themselves. However, such responses, indicated that some motorcyclists felt they would not need to use the PRIMEs in relation to their own riding but could see the benefit for others (and this was primarily focused on those with less experience and less geographic knowledge).
Overall observations
Almost two-thirds of the motorcyclists interviewed did not remember seeing the PRIMEs on their way to Tyndrum or Inveraray. In addition, in most cases, motorcyclists did not feel the PRIMEs would influence their riding. Taking these two observations together, this could indicate an unconscious or implicit influence of PRIMEs in the behaviours observed at the trial sites.
It was decided to stop collecting data once 100 riders had been reached. This is because there came a point where the responses became similar and data saturation was reached. However, conversations continued as they were a good opportunity to inform riders of the PRIME road markings and material they were made of.
While the responses were generally positive for PRIMEs, some comments focused on “putting too much white paint on the road” or “being told how to ride”. After the informal conversations were completed a quick overview was given about the material used for the PRIME road markings and their purpose. When motorcyclists were more familiar with the idea that the markings had the same or greater traction qualities as the road surface they were more positive about them. Some motorcyclists suggested using yellow markings so that the idea of white paint on the road was less of an issue.